Development and Growth: A Dilemma for Environmental Issues
By Reni Juwitasari
Researcher, Disaster Resilience and Environmental Sustainability (DRES),
Asian Research Center for International Development (ARCID),
School of Social Innovation, Mae Fah Luang University
The conception of 'development' has evolved to include a subtle and comprehensive understanding of its historical and tangible aspects. It denotes a significant shift in the economic, social, political, and cultural conditions that impact huge populations. The development is often understood as a conceptual framework, cognitive depiction, or hypothesis about a certain alteration with the main aim of tackling poverty, improving the standard of living, and fostering general welfare (Dethier, 2020; Dwivedi, Khator & Nef, 2007). The development has transformed over time, particularly after the Second World War, with a focus on the Augustinian perspective of human progress, social evolution, modernity, and the fulfillment of human potential. The development is closely linked to material culture and the construction of "civilization" (Kramer, 2016; Cullather, 2000).
The global powers in the nineteenth century widened the 'development' trajectory, resulting in dominance and power hegemony (Cullather, 2000). Modernization, serving as a symbol of civilized nations, has reshaped development and is now closely intertwined with globalization (Veltmeyer, 2005). Contemporary development thinking primarily focuses on economic growth, especially GDP, accompanied by political modernization and social modernization. Political modernization refers to nation-building, while social modernization involves social mobility and social movement in promoting social rapid transformation from traditional to modern form and fostering an achievement-oriented mindset, especially in the global South (Pieterse, 2010; Khondker & Schuerkens, 2014; Coşkun, 2020). This transition has led to the reconfiguration of geographical space and the capitalist mode of production, emphasizing the significance of urbanization while sometimes overlooking the ecological concern, e.g., freshwater scarcity (Harvey, 2001; Pieterse, 2010). In addition, urbanization has shifted land use with increasing population growth and making food production highly in demand; simultaneously, agriculture has undergone major challenges of climate change (Keiner, 2006). Consequently, the development has resulted in complex and layered constraints with two sides of a coin: opportunity and threat. With this introduction, this article seeks to provide a detailed analysis of the relationship between development and growth embodiment and its influence on spatial management and ecological issues.
Spatial Management for Development and Growth
The process of development and growth cannot be separated from spatial management and urbanization. The notions of 'core' and 'periphery,' as first proposed by Immanuel Wallerstein, have significantly influenced the discourse around matters of inequality and disparate patterns of economic development (Christofis, 2019). The notion of core-periphery connections, denoting the economic and political supremacy of certain areas, was first established by the Economic Commission of Latin America and Raul Prebisch in the 1950s. The term was used to characterize an imbalanced allocation of labor in the worldwide economy, whereby the North denotes previous imperial and colonial powers, while the South signifies conquered countries and economies (Prebisch, 1978). Such inequality in this concept is an unavoidable consequence and precondition of global capitalism.
The term "core" refers to areas benefiting the most from the capitalist world economy with politically strong governments, high levels of technology and high-profit industry (Christofis, 2019). In contrast, the term "peripheral" refers to regions or zones that experience marginalization, limited development, and lower economic productivity (Christofis, 2019). These periphery regions are governed by a central authority participating in an imbalanced commerce system, extracting excess resources from the surrounding areas. Harders (2015) argues that there are two vital aspects in shaping his conceptualization of the periphery, which are the idea of relationality and the focus on power and domination. Furthermore, in 2001 publication titled "Globalization and the Spatial Fix," by David Harvey, discusses the concept of "new economic geography." This concept explores the significance of self-organizing spatial principles in economic activity within political-economic dynamics. Harvey also suggests that the principles of comparative geographical advantage can be better theorized by considering their implications for regional development and international trade. The present manifestation of globalization may be seen as a further iteration within the framework of capitalist production and spatial reconfiguration. The implementation of new advancements in transportation and communication technology achieves this. The phenomenon often referred to as "globalization" has been brought about by several interdependent and mutually reinforcing actions, for instance, the development of airlines and the construction of airports (Harvey, 2001). The concept of the "spatial fix" refers to the utilization of geographical expansion to address issues of overaccumulation. This approach involves strategically locating investments in specific areas, integrating them into the physical landscape and facilitating the creation of entirely new environments, such as airports and cities. These developments serve as platforms for capital accumulation and are closely intertwined with urbanization processes.
The transition of land use from rural areas, also known as the periphery, to urban areas, referred to as the core, has led to the exploitation of both the population as a source of human capital and nature as a form of physical capital. This process can be seen as a spatial fix, wherein the periphery continuously serves as a frontier for opening up new opportunities for capital accumulation. This phenomenon has also been asserted by Jason Moore's observations in 2014; the periphery is not solely focused on accumulating resources but also involves advancing innovative practices that enable capital accumulation. The historically geographically produced configurations place a specific location in a distinctive (advantageous or disadvantageous) position vis-à-vis other places (Swyngedouw, 2018). It has been happened in enclosing and privatizing agricultural land was one of the central processes through which "free" and landless labor was produced as the separation of workers from their means of subsistence underpinned the process of proletarianization and the manifestation of a "free" working class that had no other choice than to sell their bodily labor force as a commodity on the labor market (Berman, 1983).
In contrast, the development becomes constrained as the initial benefits of expanding into new frontiers gradually diminish, necessitating the exploration of alternative spaces for further capitalist accumulation.
Development and Growth and Its Impact on Environmental Issues
The global economy can positively impact development if the environment can be protected sustainably (Hickel, 2018). However, Gupta and Vegelin, in 2016, asserted that development embodies 'trade-offs' in favor of economic growth over ecological and social well-being. The influential book 'Limits to Growth' (1972) shed light on the scarcity of natural resources and its profound effect on the environment in Club of Rome, which impacts population, pollution and consumption of non-renewable natural resources, industrial production and food production from the economy growth (Simmons, 2000; Turner, 2008). This matter is widely recognized in the capitalist form of planetary urbanization and its associated socio-ecological and political-economic process as significant drivers of anthropogenic climate change and other socio-environmental transformations, such as biodiversity loss, soil erosion, large-scale eco-infrastructures like dams, deforestation, resource extraction, deep-geological mining, pollution, and the increasing commodification of various natural resources (Swyngedouw, 2018).
The significant factor of environmental degradation derives from human activity, leading to the concept known as the "Anthropocene." Haraway et al. (2016) mentioned that the term "Anthropocene" is defined as a distinct era characterized by the equivalence or even the surpassing of human industrial activities concerning geological processes. In this era, human beings, in their pursuit of dominating nature, have unintentionally emerged as a significant force contributing to its destruction. Broadly, the development aligning with capitalist urbanization has been identified as the primary catalyst for the Anthropocene epoch, often referred to as the Capitalocene (Moore, 2015). James Moore (2015) emphasized that in the periphery, development exploits both human and non-human elements of nature for capitalist accumulation, particularly with labor productivity within commodity production. This concept represented a significant shift in the understanding of value as they restructured human and non-human entities (such as enslaved people, forests, and soils) to enhance labor productivity and the production of commodities.
In fact, beyond the environmental issues, the development often overlooks the gender factor, as highlighted by Ester Boserup (1980). Boserup stated that development has contributed to gender roles and constructions, especially in the workforce, which was constructed by societal beliefs rather than biological factors, challenging the prevailing perspective at the time. Development identically with high technology and industrialization influenced the construction of "technology as a man world," particularly in the global South (Momsen, 2019). In addition, the development idea includes the preservation of social and environmental resources and the promotion of a more balanced and fair connection with the natural environment.
Dennis Goulet (1996) has been critical of development, referring to it as a morally objectionable decision. This perspective is evident in his published work on development ethics. Goulet's scholarly endeavors centered on the critical examination of conventional development paradigms that placed significant emphasis on economic expansion and material advancement. He advocated using a comprehensive strategy that included cultural, social, and human aspects. The author often contested the idea that economic metrics were sufficient in assessing the progress of development, advocating for a broader perspective that considers the welfare and satisfaction of persons within communities.
The urgent movement held by the international community has been supported by the 1992 Rio Summit and the Brundtland Report to achieve sustainable development in a wide range of environmental, social, and economic concerns. The presence of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 2000 – 2015 and its successor Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2015 – 2030 for environmental sustainability becomes the primary objective of the interconnectedness of the environment and development, treating them as a unified concern (Orellana, 2010). This agenda establishes a collaborative framework at the international level, facilitating cooperation between governmental bodies and multinational enterprises with the shared objective of promoting sustainability worldwide (Brundtland, 1987), and it emphasizes the three essential dimensions of sustainable development: society, environment, and economics, often referred to as the 3Ps concepts: People, Planet, and Prosperity (Elkington, 2006). As a result, the existing Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with 17 priorities are recognized as an alternative balanced way between development and growth.
Conclusion
Development and growth are closely interconnected. The development was originally designed to promote 'civilization' and enhance human well-being. Following the Second World War, global powers sought to increase their influence and establish dominance through economic growth, specifically measured by GDP. In addition, development and growth are closely linked to spatial management, which involves the shifting of land from cultivation and livelihood in the peripheral area to asset property in the core area to promote capitalism. This process, referred to as spatial fix by David Harvey, is essential for economic progress. The significant expansion of economic activity has gradually led to significant hurdles that cannot be easily overcome, including environmental problems, as shown by Jason Moore in his discussion of the Capitalocene. The acknowledgment of the capitalist model of global urbanization and its linked socio-ecological and political-economic activities as major contributors to human-induced climate change and other socio-environmental changes, including the decline of biodiversity, erosion of soil, construction of large-scale, like dams, destruction of forests, extraction of resources, underground mining, pollution, and the growing commercialization of different natural resources. In its report 'Limit to Growth,' the Club of Rome emphasized the adverse consequences of economic expansion, including natural resource shortages and environmental problems. In addition, Dennis Goulet has criticized the notion of enlightened capitalist development due to ethical concerns. Prior to development ethics, the Brundtland report in 1987 and the Rio De Janeiro 1992 Summit had a pivotal role in highlighting the significance of the concept of development in aligning with the interdependent sustainability of the planet, people, and prosperity. From MDGs to SDGs, the agenda of development has greater attention; even the existing SDGs with 17 priorities become a hope for balancing implementing development and growth.
Thanks to Dr. Yuki Miyake, the Head of the Disaster Resilience and Environmental Sustainability (DRES) Program, Asian Research Center for International Development, School of Social Innovation, Mae Fah Luang University, for supervising this article
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