By Reni Juwitasari
Researcher, Disaster Resilience and Environmental Sustainability (DRES),
Asian Research Center for International Development (ARCID),
School of Social Innovation, Mae Fah Luang University
The water resources of Southeast Asia are very susceptible to the hostile effects of climate change, making the area particularly vulnerable. The issues are worsened by the region's varied terrain, which includes both islands and mainland locations. Based on a 2009 climate change assessment report by SIDA, the Mekong River region, particularly Thailand and Indonesia, was identified as the most vulnerable area. This vulnerability was determined by three factors, exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity, during the period from 1980 to 2005. In the next 20 years, these nations are expected to experience more severe climate change effects and dangers as a result of global warming (Thirumalai et al., 2017).
Indonesia, an archipelago country of 17,000 islands, is highly vulnerable to the effects of rising sea levels, more intense storms, and changes in rainfall patterns (IPCC, 2014). These alterations pose a significant risk to both the availability of freshwater resources and the economic well-being of populations who rely on them. On the other hand, mainland regions such as Thailand face distinct, although equally significant, consequences. Thailand has seen more unpredictable rainfall patterns, resulting in more severe and frequent droughts and floods (Marks, 2011). The presence of water difficulties caused by climate change highlights the pressing and immediate need for efficient water management solutions across the area.
Furthermore, Indonesia and Thailand have a multitude of climate-related difficulties. Indonesia has seen alterations in rainfall patterns, resulting in extended periods of drought and unanticipated episodes of intense precipitation. These changes have had a disruptive effect on agricultural and water supply systems in the country (Sukmono et al., 2018). The heightened occurrence of severe weather phenomena, including typhoons and intense monsoons, worsens the problem of floods and coastal erosion, especially in regions with low elevation (ADB, 2016). The situation in Thailand is also really grave. The nation has seen profound droughts, which have had a significant influence on agricultural output and the availability of water (Rakwatin et al., 2013). Concurrently, erratic and substantial precipitation has resulted in catastrophic floods, primarily in metropolitan regions, resulting in substantial financial damages and societal disturbances (World Bank, 2010).
In response to these issues, the government entities in Southeast Asia pledged to strengthen efforts to address climate change adaptation and allocate financial resources towards this goal (SIDA, 2009). The ASEAN Community adopted a declaration at the 2007 Bali UN Climate Change Conference to incorporate climate change into the policy, regulation, framework, and agenda of ASEAN Community building. This declaration also encompasses various development and sectoral areas outlined in the ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community Blueprint on Environmental Sustainability (Letchumanan, 2010). The reinforcement of this agenda is seen in Indonesia's National Plans and Strategies, namely the National Action Plan for Climate Change Adaptation (RAN-API) in 2014, as well as Thailand's Climate Change Master Plan (2013-2050) (Dedicatoria & Diomampo, 2019). The legislation of both nations places a strong focus on incorporating Indigenous knowledge or traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) into adaptive technology in order to foster the development of a resilient community.
Based on the background mentioned earlier, this article aims to examine the TEK by integrating cultural resilience in the context of water conservation in Indonesia and Thailand.
Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) and Cultural Ecology Toward Resilient Water Preservation
Considering these difficulties, there is an urgent need for robust water management strategies throughout Southeast Asia. The doubt about the validity of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) has persisted for millennia (Martin et al., 2010). The hegemony of Western science undermined a priceless TEK in the management of nature and the environment. The consolidation of the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP 21) of the UNFCC urges nations to take adaptation action, relying on the most reliable scientific information and, when relevant, knowledge of Indigenous peoples, traditional knowledge, and local knowledge systems (Nakashima et al., 2018).
TEK provides useful knowledge and techniques for effectively and sustainably managing water resources, with a specific focus on responding to changes in climatic conditions (Berkes, 2018). This method highlights the capacity of social-ecological systems to absorb and acknowledge perturbations while transforming effectively (Folke et al., 2010). TEK's primary emphasis is on establishing enduring and close connections with local ecosystems, with the aim of enhancing long-term sustainability and the preservation of resources (Martin et al., 2010). Furthermore, all TEK or Indigenous knowledge systems are deeply embedded in the cultural context of the culture and often include the ways of life within that community (Mazzocchi, 2008). TEK encompasses the societal belief system and worldview that shape its cultural identity and provide justification for its actions (Mazzocchi, 2008). Indigenous cosmologies, such as those mentioned by Mazzocchi (2008), integrate social, ecological, spiritual, and material factors. TEK simplifies the intricate nature of distinct fields such as natural, technological, or social science, necessitating a comprehension that goes beyond mere global environmental issues awareness in the context of the landscape. However, it is essential to comprehend the concept of cultural ecology (Lapka et al., 2012).
Cultural ecology is a field of study that explores the dynamic connections between culture and the environment. It focuses on the complex interplay between cultural practices and the sustainability of the environment, highlighting how human societies adapt to their surroundings through culturally ingrained practices (Rappaport, 1979; Nsamenang, 2015). Cultural constructs, such as TEK, social norms, values, and myths, enable individuals to comprehend and interpret their surroundings (Nsamenang, 2015). Cultural ecology extends beyond social ecology since it recognizes that environmental issues stem from social factors, including disputes and inequities related to social, economic, and racial aspects (Lapka et al., 2012). Cultural ecology is inherently linked to the interdependence of social, economic, and environmental issues, facilitating and encouraging dialogue within the scientific community and between science and society (Lapka et al., 2012).
As a consequence, integrating TEK (Traditional Ecological Knowledge) with cultural ecology provides a comprehensive strategy for enhancing resilience in water conservation. Resilience theory examines the ability of social-ecological systems to effectively handle disruptions, adjust, and undergo changes in response to shifts in the environment (Folke et al., 2010). Communities may boost their ability to withstand the consequences of climate change, such as more severe and frequent droughts and floods, by using TEK and cultural ecology to build adaptive strategies. Furthermore, there are two instances of TEK and Cultural Ecology originating from Indonesia and Thailand.
Water Preservation Practices in Indonesia and Thailand
Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) has played a crucial role in promoting sustainable resource management in Southeast Asia. TEK refers to established methods and principles that promote a balanced and mutually beneficial connection between the natural surroundings and the populations who inhabit them (Berkes, 2018). In Indonesia, the Subak system serves as an example of how cultural ecology and traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) can guide adaptive water management practices that are both environmentally sustainable and socially cohesive. This system also showcases the potential for community-based, adaptive water management that can be expanded to tackle larger climate-related issues. (Lorenzen et al., 2011; Lansing, 2006). The "Monkey Cheek" (Kaem Ling) project in Thailand demonstrates the combination of traditional flood protection methods with contemporary engineering, resulting in improved community resilience and the preservation of cultural heritage (Jarungrattanapong & Manasboonphempool, 2009).
The Subak system is a customary irrigation institution that is used on the island of Bali. The implementation involves the process of planning, building, operating, and maintaining an irrigation system specifically for rice fields. In Balinese Hinduism, water is considered a divine gift, and this ancient irrigation system is thought to originate from holy water. The Subak system is a manifestation of the Balinese way of life, known as Tri Hita Karana, which encompasses three aspects of pleasure, particularly in relation to the environment (Susanto, 2006). Furthermore, Subak has acquired indigenous expertise in sustainable resource management, including activities such as rice cultivation, pest management, and the implementation of integrated rice-fish farming. These practices contribute to the promotion of food security and the preservation of biodiversity (Zen et al., 2024).
Unlike the Subak method, which originates from the traditional Balinese Hinduism community and focuses on water preservation and management, Monkey Cheek in Thailand specifically aims to retain floodwater. The Monkey Cheek is a hydraulic infrastructure composed of canals, pumps, and sluice gates that allow for the regulation of water storage and discharge, particularly for purposes like agriculture and fishing (Trakuldit & Faysee, 2018). The Monkey Cheek is a flood-control idea that was established by His Majesty the King of Thailand, based on observations of monkeys' behavior. Monkeys often acquire bananas and proceed to retain them in their oral cavity before progressively masticating and ingesting them (Wattanaprateep, 2016). The occurrence of this Monkey Cheek was initiated by the flooding incident that took place in 2011. The historical experience of residing in inundated regions has influenced social and cultural transformations aimed at adapting and ensuring survival, hence enhancing the overall standard of living and fostering a resilient society (Sa-adthien, et al., 2020). Furthermore, the "Monkey Cheek" project demonstrates the incorporation of TEK and resilience by merging conventional flood control methods with contemporary engineering practices to bolster community resilience against climatic unpredictability (Jarungrattanapong & Manasboonphempool, 2009).
From the standpoint of cultural ecology, these two instances of water conservation illustrate how a developing society is able to adapt and deal with the challenges posed by climate change and the environment (Sa-adthien et al., 2020). Conversely, these two initiatives are culturally transmitted, shared, traded, and comprehended throughout generations (Zen et al., 2024; Sa-adthien et al., 2020). Therefore, upholding the development of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) and cultural ecology may enhance the capacity to address the challenges posed by climate change effectively.
Conclusion
Overall, the combination of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK), cultural ecology, resilience, and climate change adaptation offers a strong foundation for ensuring the long-term preservation of water resources in a sustainable manner. TEK provides significant knowledge on sustainable water management strategies that have been improved throughout generations. The Subak irrigation system in Bali showcases the capacity of TEK to provide valuable insights for contemporary water management practices. The "Monkey Cheek" effort in Thailand exemplifies how resilience may be implemented to reduce the effects of climate unpredictability and improve the resilience of communities and ecosystems. Furthermore, the incorporation of cultural values into water management methods, shown by the Subak system and monkey cheek, emphasizes the significance of cultural ecology in promoting sustainable water use and communal harmony. The integration of TEK and cultural ecology in water preservation is recommended as a viable approach to enhance the sustainability and adaptive capability of water management systems. This method emphasizes the significance of integrating indigenous knowledge and cultural traditions into modern water management frameworks, offering practical insights for policymakers, practitioners, and scholars.
Thanks to Dr. Yuki Miyake, the Head of the Disaster Resilience and Environmental Sustainability (DRES) Program, Asian Research Center for International Development, School of Social Innovation, Mae Fah Luang University, for supervising this article
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